Biology Notes for IGCSE 2014
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    • All Notes
    • 01 Classification
    • 02 Cells
    • 03 Enzymes
    • 04 Plant Nutrition
    • 05 Animal Nutrition
    • 06 Plant transport
    • 07 Human transport
    • 08 Respiration
    • 09 Coordination
    • 10 Excretion
    • 11 Homeostasis
    • 12 Reproduction
    • 13 Inheritance
    • 14 Ecosystem
  • Classification
    • Summary
    • Characteristics of Living organisms
    • Classification of Living organisms
    • Kingdoms of Living organisms
    • Animal Kingdom >
      • Classification
      • Phylum Vetebrates
      • Phylum Arthropods
      • Annelids, Nematodes, Molluscs
    • Plant Kingdom
    • Virus
    • Bacteria Kingdom
    • Fungi Kingdom
    • Dichotomous keys
  • Cells
    • Summary
    • Structure
    • Functions
    • Tissues, Organs, Systems
    • Diffusion
    • Osmosis
    • Active transport
  • Enzymes
    • Summary
    • Enzymes and reactions
    • 'Lock and Key' model
    • Role in germinating seeds
    • Use in biological washing powders
    • Use in the food industry
    • Use of microorganisms and fermenter to manufacture enzymes
    • Use of microorganisms to manufacture antibiotic penicillin
  • Nutrition
    • Animal >
      • Summary
      • 1 >
        • Main nutrients: carbohydrates, fats and proteins
        • Food tests >
          • Food test 1 - Starch test
          • Food test 2 - Benedict's test for Reducing Sugars
          • Food test 3 - Emulsion (ethanol) test for Fats
          • Food test 4 - Biuret test for Proteins
        • Other Nutrients: Vitamins, Minerals, Fiber and Water
        • Using yeast to make bread and beer
        • Using microorganism in making yoghurt and single cell protein
        • Food additives - uses, benefits and health hazards
        • Use of modern technology for increasing food production
      • 2 >
        • Problems of world food supplies and the causes of famine
        • Diet
        • Human alimentary canal
        • Human teeth and dental decay
        • Adding fluoride to public water supplies
        • Mechanical and chemical digestion
        • Absorption – function of the small intestine and significance of villi
        • Assimilation and role of the liver
    • Plant >
      • Summary
      • The equation for photosynthesis
      • Photosynthesis investigations - Principles and Starch test
      • Effect of Light intensity on the rate of Photosynthesis
      • Effect of Temperature on the Rate of Photosynthesis
      • Effect of Carbon Dioxide on the Rate of Photosynthesis
      • Limiting factors in photosynthesis
      • Optimum conditions for photosynthesis in Green house
      • Leaf structure
      • Plant's mineral requirements and fertilisers
  • Transport
    • Plant >
      • Summary
      • Functions of xylem and phloem
      • Distribution of Xylem and Phloem in roots, stems and leaves
      • Root hairs and water uptake by plants
      • Passage of water through root, stem and leaf
      • Transpiration in plants and factors affecting tranpiration rate
      • Adaptations of the leaf, stem and root to different environments
      • Translocation of organic foods in plants
      • Translocation of applied chemicals throughout the plant
      • Transport of materials from sources to sinks at different seasons
    • Human >
      • Summary
      • 1 >
        • The circulatory system
        • Structure and function of the heart
        • Effect of exercise on heartbeat and causes of a coronary heart disease
        • Arteries, veins and capillaries - structure and functions
        • Blood composition and Plasma
        • Blood cells - structure and functions
      • 2 >
        • Blood clotting
        • Immune system - antibody, tissue rejection
        • Functions of lymphatic system
        • Respiration
        • Aerobic and anaerobic respiration
        • Gaseous exchange
  • Respiration
    • Summary
    • Definition
    • Aerobic, anaerobic
    • Gaseous exchange
    • Inspired, expired air
    • Tobacco smoke
  • Reproduction
    • Summary
    • Types
    • Plant >
      • Pollination
      • Flower structure
      • Formation of seed
      • Seed dispersal
      • Self-pollination, cross-pollination
      • Growth and development
    • Human >
      • Reproductive system
      • Menstrual cycle
      • Fertilisation
      • Fetus development
      • Birth
      • Sex hormones
      • Birth control
      • Artificial insemination
      • HIV/AIDS
      • Gonorrhoea
      • Breast feeding
  • Coordination
    • Coordination >
      • Summary
      • Hormones, adrenaline
      • Hormones in food production
      • Human nervous system
      • Simple reflex arc
      • Effectors, biceps and triceps
      • Voluntary, involuntary actions
      • The eye, rods and cones
      • Accommodation
      • Tropism in plants
      • Auxins
    • Homeostasis >
      • Summary
      • Homeostasis
      • Blood glucose
      • Negative feedback
      • Kidney structure
      • Kidney function
      • Formation of urea
      • Dialysis
      • Drugs
  • Inheritance
    • Summary
    • Key definitions
    • Chromosomes, DNA
    • Mitosis and Meiosis
    • Monohybrid cross
    • Codominance
    • Continuous, discontinous
    • Mutation, radiation
    • Sickle cell anaemia
    • Selection
    • Antibiotic-resistance bacteria
    • Genetic engineering
  • Ecosystem
    • Summary
    • Human & ecosystem >
      • Human influences
      • Deforestation
      • Water pollution
      • Air pollution
      • Greenhouse gases
      • Pesticides, nuclear fallout
      • Conservation, recycling sewage
    • Energy flow
    • Food chain
    • Food web
    • Food pyramids
    • Energy efficiency
    • Carbon & water cycles
    • Nitrogen cycle
    • Combustion of fossil fuels
    • Population size

#8: Plant Kingdom


Plants are multicellular organisms, with cell wall made of cellulose. They include small organisms such as mosses, ferns and flowering plants.
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At least some parts of a plant are green, thanks to pigment chlorophyll. Chlorophyll absorbs energy from sunlight for plant to make glucose, using CO2 and H2O from environment. This is called photosynthesis.
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They are divided into 2 groups, depending on number of seed leaves (Cotyledon):

  1. Monocotyledonous (Monocots) 
  2. Dicotyledonous (Dicots)
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